Crystallography is the scientific study of crystals and their structures. It involves examining the arrangement of atoms within a crystal and understanding how this arrangement affects the crystal’s properties. In gemology, crystallography is crucial for identifying gemstones, understanding their formation, and determining their physical and optical properties.
Historical Background
Crystallography has a rich history that dates back to ancient times when crystals were admired for their beauty and symmetry. The modern scientific study of crystals began in the 17th century with the work of scientists like Johannes Kepler and Nicolas Steno. However, it wasn’t until the 20th century, with the advent of X-ray diffraction techniques developed by William Henry Bragg and his son William Lawrence Bragg, that the field truly advanced. Their work earned them the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1915 and laid the foundation for modern crystallography.
Basic Concepts in Crystallography
1. Crystal Structure: A crystal is a solid material whose atoms are arranged in a highly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. This orderly arrangement is known as the crystal lattice.
2. Unit Cell: The unit cell is the smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice. It defines the entire crystal structure and can be described by its edge lengths (a, b, c) and the angles between them (α, β, γ).
3. Crystal Systems: There are seven crystal systems, each defined by different unit cell parameters. These systems are:
– Cubic: All sides are equal, and all angles are 90°.
– Tetragonal: Two sides are equal, and all angles are 90°.
– Orthorhombic: All sides are unequal, and all angles are 90°.
– Hexagonal: Two sides are equal, and one angle is 120°.
– Trigonal: Similar to hexagonal but with threefold rotational symmetry.
– Monoclinic: All sides are unequal, with two angles at 90° and one different.
– Triclinic: All sides and angles are unequal.
4. Symmetry Elements: Crystals exhibit various symmetry elements such as rotation axes, mirror planes, and inversion centers that describe their internal symmetry.
Techniques in Crystallography
1. X-ray Diffraction (XRD): XRD is the most widely used technique in crystallography. It involves directing X-rays at a crystal and measuring the angles and intensities of the diffracted beams. This data helps determine the crystal’s atomic structure.
2. Electron Microscopy: Electron microscopes, such as Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) and Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM), provide high-resolution images of crystal structures and defects.
3. Neutron Diffraction: Similar to XRD but uses neutrons instead of X-rays, this technique is particularly useful for studying crystals with light atoms such as hydrogen.
4. Optical Crystallography: This involves studying crystals using polarized light microscopes to determine their optical properties and identify minerals.
Importance of Crystallography in Gemology
1. Gemstone Identification: Each gemstone has a unique crystal structure that can be used to identify it. For example, diamonds have a cubic crystal system, while emeralds belong to the hexagonal system.
2. Understanding Gemstone Properties: The physical and optical properties of gemstones, such as hardness, cleavage, and refractive index, are directly related to their crystal structures.
3. Synthetic and Treated Gemstones: Crystallography helps distinguish natural gemstones from synthetic and treated ones by revealing differences in their internal structures.
4. Gemstone Formation: Understanding crystal growth processes helps gemologists determine the geological conditions under which gemstones form, providing insights into their origin.
Crystallography in Practice
1. X-ray Diffraction Analysis: Gemologists use XRD to analyze gemstones’ crystal structures, confirming their identities and detecting any inclusions or defects.
2. Optical Microscopy: Polarized light microscopes are used to study the optical properties of gemstones, such as birefringence and pleochroism, which are related to their crystal structures.
3. Crystal Habit: The external shape of a crystal, known as its habit, can provide clues about its internal structure and growth environment. For example, quartz commonly forms hexagonal prisms, while pyrite forms cubic crystals.
4. Cleavage and Fracture: Crystallography explains why gemstones break along specific planes (cleavage) or irregular surfaces (fracture). Understanding these properties is essential for gemstone cutting and handling.
Further Learning Resources
1. Books: “Introduction to Crystallography” by Donald E. Sands provides a comprehensive overview of the field. “Crystallography and Crystal Defects” by Anthony Kelly and Kevin M. Knowles is another excellent resource.
2. Courses: The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) and other gemological institutions offer courses that include modules on crystallography. Online platforms like Coursera and edX also offer crystallography courses.
3. Online Resources: Websites like the International Union of Crystallography (IUCr) and the American Crystallographic Association (ACA) offer valuable information and resources for learning about crystallography.
Conclusion
Crystallography is a fascinating and essential field in gemology that provides deep insights into the nature and properties of gemstones. By studying the crystal structures of gemstones, gemologists can accurately identify them, understand their formation processes, and evaluate their physical and optical properties. Whether you are an amateur gem enthusiast or a professional gemologist, mastering crystallography will enhance your understanding and appreciation of the beautiful world of gemstones.